International Organisations

The United Nations (UN): • The United Nations is the foremost international intergovernmental organisation — founded in 1945 after World War II to maintain international peace and security, promote human rights, and facilitate international cooperation. • The UN Charter was signed at San Francisco on 26 June 1945; the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 (UN Day). • Current membership: 193 member states — virtually every country in the world. • Headquarters: New York (with offices in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi). Main Organs of the UN: 1. General Assembly (UNGA): • All 193 member states — each with one vote. • Debates and passes resolutions on any international issue. • Approves the UN budget. • UNGA resolutions are NOT legally binding (unlike Security Council resolutions under Chapter VII). 2. Security Council (UNSC): • 15 members: 5 permanent (P5 — USA, UK, France, Russia, China) + 10 elected for 2-year terms. • Primary responsibility for international peace and security. • Resolutions under Chapter VII of the Charter are legally binding — authorise military force, sanctions, etc. • Veto power: Any P5 member can block any substantive resolution — a single veto kills it. 3. Secretariat: • The UN's administrative body — headed by the Secretary-General. • The Secretary-General has a significant diplomatic role — mediating conflicts, raising global issues. • Recent Secretaries-General: Kofi Annan (Ghana), Ban Ki-moon (South Korea), António Guterres (Portugal, current). 4. International Court of Justice (ICJ): • The UN's principal judicial organ — settles legal disputes between states. • 15 judges elected for 9-year terms. 5. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): • Coordinates economic, social, and environmental work of the UN system. 6. Trusteeship Council: Originally supervised trust territories — now largely inactive. Principal Functions: • Peace and security (peacekeeping operations, conflict mediation). • Development (UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO). • Human rights (UNHRC, Universal Declaration of Human Rights). • International law (treaties, conventions). • Humanitarian assistance (UNHCR, WFP).

Limitations of the United Nations: 1. The Veto Problem: • The Security Council veto — which any P5 member can exercise — frequently paralyses the UN when the interests of major powers are involved. • Russia has vetoed resolutions on Syria, Ukraine; China and Russia together blocked action on Myanmar and North Korea; the USA has blocked resolutions on Israel-Palestine. • When a P5 member or its ally is involved in a conflict, the Security Council cannot act — undermining the UN's core function. 2. Sovereignty vs. Human Rights: • Article 2(7) of the Charter prohibits interference in members' domestic affairs. • This protects states from external interference but can prevent the UN from stopping mass atrocities (Rwanda genocide 1994 — the UN stood by while 800,000 were killed). • The 'Responsibility to Protect' (R2P) doctrine (2005) attempts to address this — but has been applied inconsistently. 3. Enforcement Problem: • The UN has no independent military force — it depends on member states for troops and funding. • Peacekeeping operations have had mixed results — from success (Namibia, East Timor) to failure (Srebrenica massacre). 4. Financial and bureaucratic issues: • The USA (the largest contributor) has repeatedly withheld dues as political leverage. • UN bureaucracy is sometimes accused of inefficiency and corruption. Should the Security Council be Reformed? Arguments for Reform: • The P5 reflects the world of 1945, not 2024. Germany, Japan, India, Brazil, and South Africa — major powers today — have no permanent seat. • India is the world's most populous country, a nuclear power, and a major democracy — a strong case for a permanent seat. • Africa (54 countries) has no permanent representation. Proposed Reforms: • G4 proposal: Permanent seats for India, Japan, Germany, Brazil (plus two African permanent members). • Various proposals for expanding non-permanent seats. Obstacles: • The P5 would never accept changes that dilute their own power. • Regional rivals (Pakistan blocks India; Italy and Argentina oppose Germany and Brazil) prevent consensus.

India's Position on UNSC Reform: • India has been one of the most vocal and persistent advocates for comprehensive UN Security Council reform. • India seeks a permanent seat on the Security Council — arguing that the current composition is outdated and unrepresentative of the contemporary world. India's Case for a Permanent Seat: 1. Population and size: India is the world's most populous country (surpassing China in 2023) and the world's fifth-largest economy — it cannot remain outside the P5 indefinitely. 2. Democracy: India is the world's largest democracy — representing a huge portion of the democratic world. 3. UN contributions: India is one of the largest contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping operations historically — Indian soldiers have served in UN missions from the 1950s to the present. 4. Nuclear power: India is a de facto nuclear weapons state — excluding it from the body that makes decisions about global security is anomalous. 5. Historical contribution: India was a founding member of the United Nations and has been deeply committed to multilateralism throughout its history. 6. Global South leadership: India sees itself as a voice for developing nations — having a permanent seat would strengthen the representation of the Global South. India's Strategy: • India is part of the G4 (with Japan, Germany, and Brazil) — pressing for a package expansion of the Security Council. • India has received support from the USA, UK, France, and Russia for a permanent seat — but China has been equivocal (given its rivalry with India) and Pakistan actively opposes it. • India's hosting of the G20 (2023) and its prominent role in global forums have strengthened its case. Challenges: • Any change to the UN Charter requires approval by two-thirds of the General Assembly AND all P5 members — making reform extremely difficult. • China's reluctance (or opposition) is the biggest practical obstacle to India's bid.