Environment and Natural Resources

Environment in World Politics: • Environmental issues entered global politics seriously in the 1970s — driven by growing scientific evidence of environmental damage, the publication of The Limits to Growth (1972), and the first Earth Summit (Stockholm, 1972). • Environmental issues are inherently global: greenhouse gases, ocean pollution, and ozone depletion do not respect national borders. No single state can solve these problems alone. Key Global Environmental Challenges: 1. Climate Change: • The Earth's climate is warming due to the accumulation of greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane, nitrous oxide) from burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial agriculture. • Consequences: Rising sea levels (threatening low-lying countries like Bangladesh and Pacific island nations), more extreme weather events, melting glaciers, shifting agricultural zones, species extinction. • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has confirmed that human activity is the primary cause. 2. Deforestation: • Forests are being destroyed at a catastrophic rate — for agriculture (especially cattle ranching and palm oil in the Amazon and Southeast Asia), mining, and timber. • Forests are vital for: carbon absorption, biodiversity, rainfall patterns, indigenous communities. 3. Biodiversity Loss: • Species are going extinct at 1,000 times the natural background rate — scientists call this a 'sixth mass extinction.' • Causes: habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, over-hunting, invasive species. 4. Ocean Acidification and Plastic Pollution: • Oceans absorb CO₂ — this is making them more acidic, threatening coral reefs and marine life. • Plastic pollution — especially microplastics — is pervasive in all oceans and enters food chains. 5. Ozone Depletion: • The ozone layer (which protects Earth from UV radiation) was depleted by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in refrigerants and aerosols. • The Montreal Protocol (1987) successfully phased out CFCs — the ozone layer is recovering. • Demonstrates that international cooperation can work.

International Climate Change Agreements: 1. The Earth Summits: • Stockholm Conference (1972): First major international environmental conference — established UNEP (UN Environment Programme). • Rio Earth Summit (1992): Adopted the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) — the foundational treaty. Also Agenda 21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2. Kyoto Protocol (1997): • First legally binding international agreement requiring developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. • Key feature: Only developed (Annex I) countries had binding targets — developing countries (including India and China) had no binding commitments. • Rationale: The principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' — developed countries caused most historical emissions and should bear most of the burden. • USA never ratified; Canada withdrew. Russia ratified late. The protocol had limited impact. • Target: 5.2% reduction in emissions from 1990 levels by 2008–2012 (for Annex I parties). 3. Copenhagen Accord (2009): • A political agreement (not legally binding) — countries pledged voluntary emission reduction targets. • Acknowledged the 2°C warming limit but without binding commitments. • Seen as a failure — developed and developing countries failed to agree on binding targets. 4. Paris Agreement (2015): • A landmark deal — agreed at COP21 in Paris. • Key features: - Goal: Keep global warming below 2°C above pre-industrial levels (ideally 1.5°C). - NDCs: All countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions — voluntary pledges to reduce emissions. - Universal: Unlike Kyoto, both developed and developing countries have commitments. - Non-binding: NDCs are voluntary — there are no enforcement mechanisms or financial penalties. - Review mechanism: Countries review and ratchet up ambitions every five years. • The USA (Trump) withdrew from the Paris Agreement in 2020; Biden rejoined in 2021. Key Difference: Kyoto — binding targets only for developed countries; Paris — universal but non-binding commitments. India's Position: • India signed and ratified the Paris Agreement. • India argues for 'climate justice' — developing countries should not sacrifice development to fix a problem primarily caused by the industrial world. • India has pledged to achieve net zero by 2070 and massively expand renewable energy.

North-South Divisions in Environmental Politics: • One of the most persistent fault lines in international environmental negotiations is the divide between developed ('Northern') and developing ('Southern') countries. The Core Tension: • Rich countries say: All countries must cut emissions to save the planet — including China and India. • Poor countries say: You industrialised and emitted for 150 years. You got rich. Now you ask us to limit our development? That is unjust. Key Principles of the 'South's' Position: 1. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): • All countries share responsibility for protecting the environment, but the responsibility is differentiated based on historical contributions and capability. • The USA and Europe are responsible for the vast majority of accumulated historical CO₂ emissions — they should bear more of the burden. 2. Right to Development: • Developing countries insist on their right to develop — to lift their populations out of poverty, industrialise, and provide electricity, transport, and goods to their citizens. • They argue it is hypocritical for rich countries (which developed with no emissions constraints) to impose constraints on the development of poor countries. 3. Technology and Finance Transfer: • Developing countries should receive technology (clean energy technology) and financial support from developed countries to grow sustainably. • The Green Climate Fund (GCF) was created to channel $100 billion per year to developing countries — this pledge has rarely been met. India's Position and Navigation: • India is caught in a difficult position: - It is a major and growing emitter (third largest globally). - It has 800 million people still needing reliable electricity, sanitation, and transport. - It is extremely vulnerable to climate change (monsoon disruption, sea level rise, heat waves). • India's strategy: 1. Defends CBDR and the right to development. 2. Has made ambitious renewable energy commitments (500 GW of non-fossil capacity by 2030; net zero by 2070). 3. Pushes for technology transfer and climate finance from developed countries. 4. International Solar Alliance: India and France co-founded this coalition of solar-rich developing nations (2015). 5. Insists on lifestyle changes in wealthy countries (PM Modi's 'LiFE — Lifestyle for Environment' initiative at COP26).