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Class 12 Political ScienceChapter Notes
4 chapters · Definitions, key points, formulas & exam tips
Ch 1
Cold War and Non-Alignment
Key Definitions
Cold War: The ideological and geopolitical rivalry between the USA and USSR (1947–1991). Characterised by arms race, proxy wars, and political tension — not direct military confrontation.
Non-Alignment: India's foreign policy of not joining either the US-led (NATO) or Soviet-led (Warsaw Pact) bloc during the Cold War.
NAM: Non-Aligned Movement — founded 1961, Belgrade. India's Nehru, Yugoslavia's Tito, Egypt's Nasser, Ghana's Nkrumah, Indonesia's Sukarno were founders.
Key Points to Remember
- →Cold War origins: post-WWII ideological divide — USA (capitalism, democracy) vs USSR (communism, one-party state).
- →Key crises: Berlin Blockade 1948–49, Korean War 1950–53, Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 (closest to nuclear war).
- →Cuban Missile Crisis: USSR missiles in Cuba, 13-day standoff — JFK and Khrushchev. Ended with Soviet missile removal and US pledge not to invade Cuba.
- →Arms race: both sides developed nuclear weapons. Concept of MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) = deterrence.
- →NAM principles: peaceful coexistence, oppose colonialism and imperialism, oppose military blocs, peaceful settlement of disputes.
- →Non-Alignment ≠ neutrality: India took positions on issues (opposed apartheid, colonialism) but did not join military blocs.
- →India's interest in NAM: maintain autonomy, get aid from both blocs, maximise bargaining power.
Exam Tips
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Common confusion: Cold War was not a 'cold' war — it included proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam).
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NAM founders are often asked in MCQs: PENNI — Pakistan (no!), Egypt (Nasser), Nigeria (no), Nehru (India), Indonesia (Sukarno), Yugoslavia (Tito), Ghana (Nkrumah).
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Distinguish Cold War phase 1 (intense, 1947–63) and détente (relaxation, 1963–79) and second Cold War (1979–91).
Ch 2
Emergency and Challenges to Indian Democracy
Key Definitions
Emergency: Suspension of normal democratic processes under Article 352. Declared June 25, 1975 by Indira Gandhi. Lasted until March 1977.
JP Movement: Movement led by Jayaprakash Narayan in 1974–75 demanding 'Total Revolution' against corruption and misrule in Bihar and nationally.
Key Points to Remember
- →Background: JP Movement against Indira government → Allahabad High Court (June 12, 1975) found Indira Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractice → threatened her prime ministership.
- →Emergency declared June 25, 1975 under Article 352 (internal disturbance clause).
- →Measures during Emergency: preventive detention under MISA, press censorship, suspension of Fundamental Rights (Article 19), arrest of opposition leaders, 42nd Amendment.
- →Elections of 1977: Janata Party formed — defeated Congress. Morarji Desai became PM. First non-Congress government.
- →Shah Commission (1977): investigated Emergency excesses — found abuses of power, forced sterilisation, demolition drives in Delhi.
- →Lessons: Emergency showed fragility of Indian democracy and importance of free press, judiciary, civil society.
- →Restoration: Janata government restored civil liberties, freed political prisoners, passed 44th Amendment (made Emergency harder to impose).
Exam Tips
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Year accuracy: Emergency 1975–77, NOT 1975–76. Elections held in March 1977.
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For 6-mark question: background → declaration → measures → elections → lessons.
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MISA = Maintenance of Internal Security Act — used for preventive detention during Emergency.
Ch 3
Challenges of Nation Building and External Relations
Key Definitions
Princely States: Over 500 semi-autonomous states under British paramountcy that had to choose between India and Pakistan at independence.
Panchsheel: Five principles of peaceful coexistence agreed between India and China in 1954: sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
Key Points to Remember
- →Three challenges at independence: (1) Partition and refugee rehabilitation, (2) Integration of 500+ princely states, (3) Reorganisation of states on linguistic basis.
- →Sardar Patel's role: political integration of princely states using diplomacy and force (Hyderabad — Operation Polo, 1948).
- →States Reorganisation Commission (1953): recommended linguistic basis for state formation. Andhra Pradesh first linguistic state (1953), States Reorganisation Act 1956.
- →India-China: Panchsheel (1954) → border dispute → Sino-Indian War 1962 (India lost) → cooling of relations → Pokhran tests 1974 drew Chinese criticism.
- →India-Pakistan: Partition violence → Kashmir dispute → 1965 War (Tashkent Agreement) → 1971 War (Bangladesh Liberation, Shimla Agreement) → nuclear tests 1998.
- →Nuclear policy: Pokhran I (1974, Indira) showed nuclear capability. Pokhran II (1998, Vajpayee) — India declared itself nuclear weapon state.
- →Non-Alignment: enabled India to maintain independence in foreign policy and get aid from both blocs.
Exam Tips
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Kashmir dispute origin: Maharaja Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession to India (Oct 1947) after Pakistani tribal invasion.
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Hyderabad integration: 'Operation Polo' was the police action (September 1948) — not a war.
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1971 war outcome: Bangladesh created, Simla Agreement — bilateral resolution of disputes between India and Pakistan.
Ch 4
Recent Developments — Coalition Era and Mandal
Key Definitions
Coalition Government: Government formed by alliance of multiple political parties when no single party wins majority. Common in India from 1989.
Mandal Commission: Backward Classes Commission headed by B.P. Mandal (1979). Recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in central government jobs. Implemented 1990 by V.P. Singh.
Key Points to Remember
- →Congress dominance ended: 1989 elections — VP Singh's National Front came to power. First non-Congress government at national level since 1977 Janata.
- →VP Singh implemented Mandal Commission: protests, counter-protests (anti-Mandal movement), BJP withdrew support after Advani's Rath Yatra.
- →Rise of BJP: Ram Janmabhoomi movement, Advani's Rath Yatra (1990), 1992 Babri Masjid demolition — nationwide communal violence.
- →Coalition era: every government from 1989–2014 was a coalition — NDA, UPA, United Front — gave regional parties national importance.
- →Economic liberalisation 1991: PV Narasimha Rao + Manmohan Singh — LPG reforms (Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation) in response to forex crisis.
- →UPA 2004–2014: Congress-led coalition under Manmohan Singh. RTI, NREGA, MGNREGS social programmes.
- →NDA 2014: BJP won absolute majority — end of coalition era temporarily.
Exam Tips
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Mandal controversy: who supported (backward classes), who opposed (upper castes, students who self-immolated), what happened (VP Singh fell).
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Coalition politics key feature: regional parties (TMC, SP, RJD, DMK) became kingmakers.
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1991 economic reforms: India opened to foreign investment, reduced import tariffs, privatised PSUs.